„Philosophy of Chance” opens with a reflection on the theory of literature;  Lem seems angry at learned professors and eventually tries to create an adequate concept of literary work that would herald new trends in literary criticism.  However – as frequently with Lem's essays – his argument grows and becomes „a theory of everything”, turning to the apology of chance as a universal factor that helps understand mechanisms of all sorts of evolutions;  it determines us, the universe, the world of living creatures and culture  in which we grow.